Researchers Reveal Different Hobnail Patterns in Roman Footwear and Their Relationship with Fashion and Health

Imagine being able to look inside a compact block of 1,600-year-old soil and see the perfect imprint of a shoe—not from the impression of its sole, but from the metallic shadow of the hundreds of nails that once held it together. This is exactly what a team of researchers has achieved, using X-ray technology to uncover hidden secrets of Roman life in Britain.

A recent study, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, employed digital radiography to analyze eight blocks of soil extracted from a Romano-British cemetery in Canterbury, England. These blocks, which contain the remains of nailed footwear, have allowed archaeologists to determine the design, size, and even possible decorative patterns of the shoes in which the deceased were buried, despite the leather having completely disintegrated over time.

The research, led by James Elliott of Canterbury Christ Church University and Adelina Teoaca of the Canterbury Archaeological Trust, focuses on the site of 5–5a Rhodaus Town. Excavations carried out in 2019, prior to a commercial development, uncovered 215 graves, 51 of which showed evidence of footwear thanks to the presence of these characteristic nails.

The trail of the nails: when leather disappears, the metal remains

In Roman times, attaching small nails to the soles of sandals, shoes, or boots was a common practice. It not only improved traction and durability, but also followed fashion trends that changed over the years. These hobnails, with their rounded heads and tips bent to secure the leather layers, are often the only thing that survives in graves.

The recovery of hobnails during the excavation of Roman burials offers a fascinating glimpse into the clothing habits of the deceased, the authors note. When found in large numbers clustered around the feet of a skeleton, it is reasonable to assume they belonged to footwear.

The problem arises when the leather has decomposed and the hobnails have shifted within the soil, losing their original pattern. To prevent this, archaeologists use a technique called “block lifting”: they cut and raise the section of soil containing the fragile objects, stabilizing it with plaster and a wooden board. This block can then be studied in detail in the laboratory.

This is where radiography comes into play. Just as in a hospital, where X-rays reveal bone fractures, this technology can “see” through the block of soil and show the exact position of each metal nail.

As a non-invasive and non-destructive research tool, radiography has been used to obtain images of the internal structure of archaeological specimens, Elliott and Teoaca explain. In this case, the team used a direct digital radiography system, which produces high-quality images, allows manipulation of contrast, and enables precise measurements directly on the computer.

The result is a black-and-white image where the hobnails appear as well-defined white dots. By mapping the position of these dots, researchers can recreate the shape of the sole, measure its length and width, and identify specific patterns in the distribution of the hobnails.

Shoes for eternity: designs, fashions, and chronology

Analysis of the eight blocks revealed a total of 545 hobnails. Although some shoes were highly fragmented or compressed, radiography made it possible to identify several designs.

The first of these, which the researchers called “Pattern 1,” consists of a single line of hobnails around the edge of the sole. This pattern, according to previous studies at other sites such as Vindolanda (a Roman fort in northern England), is more common in later periods of the Roman Empire. This matches the general dating of the cemetery, active between the late 3rd and mid-5th centuries CE.

In a highly fragmented block from Grave 136, the researchers identified a “Pattern 2,” characterized by a double line of hobnails along the outer edge. Although this pattern appears in small quantities in all periods, its presence adds one more detail to the repertoire of styles used in the community.

The shape of the sole is also a chronological indicator. The study found that three of the analyzed shoes had a “broad and blunt” sole, typical of the 3rd and 4th centuries CE. One specimen from Grave 24, however, showed a “wavy and pointed” shape, more characteristic of the second half of the 2nd century. This suggests that the cemetery may have been in use for a long period, or that some older styles remained in circulation.

Who wore these shoes? Clues about age, sex, and health

One of the most interesting applications of this technique is the possibility of inferring information about the buried person when skeletal remains have not been preserved. This was the case in Grave 7, where no skeletal material was recovered, but the presence of a cluster of hobnails indicated that an adult was buried there.

When no skeletal remains are recovered, the design or distribution of the hobnails can indicate both biological sex and social status, with typically larger footwear for men and sturdier designs tentatively linked to rigorous activities, the researchers state.

Length measurements (between 22.7 and 29.2 cm) corresponded to adult footwear. However, linking shoe size to the sex of the individual is complicated. For example, in Grave 117, osteological estimates suggested the individual was probably female, but the shoe length (~27 cm) overlapped with the range typically considered male. The authors caution that this methodology is only reliable for differentiating between extremes, such as infants and adults.

The study also explores the relationship between footwear and health. In Grave 101, the individual exhibited a condition called bilateral tibial periostitis—a swelling of the shinbone—often associated with repetitive physical stress and, at times, with inadequate footwear. Although it is difficult to establish a direct link, the coincidence opens the door to future research on how footwear could affect the health of its wearers.

Beyond practicality: footwear as an expression of identity

Shoes were not just protection for the feet. In the Roman world, they were an extension of the person. The authors cite expert Carol van Driel-Murray, who describes footwear as a material projection of the self.

The variety of designs found at Rhodaus Town—from simple patterns to one suggesting a possible decorative design in the arch area—reflects this individuality. Shoes with a greater density of hobnails (Graves 24, 101, and 136) may indicate a sturdier design for rural or military activities, while those with fewer hobnails (Graves 7 and 117) may correspond to more delicate footwear for urban environments.

It is important to remember that the footwear someone is buried with does not necessarily reflect their everyday life. It could be a ritual offering, a preparation for the “long journey” to the afterlife, or an idealization of their identity by those who buried them.

The technique is not without challenges. Natural changes in the grave (taphonomic processes), damage during excavation, or cracking of the soil block can shift the hobnails from their original position, distorting the design. Furthermore, radiographic measurement has a margin of error due to “geometric unsharpness,” which makes objects farther from the detector appear larger.

A more precise, though less accessible, solution would be to use computed tomography (CT), which creates a three-dimensional image. However, its cost and complexity make it unfeasible for many projects.

Despite these limitations, the study demonstrates the enormous value of radiography. It provides a permanent and detailed record of the contents of a soil block prior to its delicate micro-excavation. In cases where preservation is poor, this may be the only opportunity to obtain valuable information.

The study concludes that radiography of soil blocks suspected to contain nailed footwear provides a wide range of complementary information about the deceased. The authors summarize: With the relatively consistent change in shoe design across the Roman Empire, shoes can serve as an additional chronological reference point when cross-referenced with well-documented collections elsewhere (for example, Vindolanda). Where no skeletal remains are recovered, the design or distribution of the hobnails can indicate both biological sex and social status.